🔍 Key Findings

• 3D-printed endoscopy ports (3DEP) enabled highly accurate screw placement, with mean screw angle deviation < 2.5° and entry/exit point deviation < 1.6 mm.
• No significant differences were found between experienced and inexperienced surgeons in screw placement or slot dimensions, suggesting ease of use.
• Slot dimensions consistently met surgical safety criteria: slot length < 1/3 vertebral body length and slot width < 1/2 vertebral body width.
• Mean depth of screw intrusion into the spinal canal was < 0.6 mm, meeting pre-set safety thresholds.
• 27/30 slots (90%) were classified as “Type I”, meeting the ideal safety classification for avoiding vascular injury.
• Custom-designed dilators allowed atraumatic placement of the 3DEP without the need for retractors or repositioning.
• Intraoperative visualization and field control were enhanced, as 3DEP prevented spread of irrigation fluid and debris.
• 3DEP use was feasible across a wide weight range (3.1–34.4 kg), suggesting potential applicability to various breeds.